Self-talk is primarily considered in terms of its role in cognition and processing, however overt self-talk can also have an effect on the sport context (Van Raalte et al., 2016a). Further, they found individual differences in self-talk use. Although such studies highlight the benefit of self-talk, research designs that include self-talk as part of a psychological skills intervention make it difficult to determine the unique effects of self-talk on sport performance. This is why self-talk is considered such an important factor in sports psychology. This inner voice, or self-talk, combining conscious thoughts and unconscious beliefs and biases, provides a way for the brain to interpret and process daily experiences. Despite the prominence of self-talk in the sport psychology literature, shared approaches to definition, theory, research, and measurement of self-talk have only begun to emerge over the past decade. Considering its long history as an important part of sport psychology research and practice, it is likely that self-talk will continue to be prominent in the sport psychology literature. DES may also be used to validate extant self-talk questionnaires, which have adequate reliability but have not yet demonstrated validity in sport settings. The matching hypothesis suggests that the greatest performance benefits will be derived from self-talk when the type of self-talk being used is appropriately paired with a particular type of performance task (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011). Further research examining the self-talk dissonance hypothesis may help identify additional mediators and moderators of the self-talk–performance relationship. Research on athletes’ spontaneous self-talk has lagged behind experimental research due in large part to measurement challenges. Application of self-talk has been based heavily on intuitive ideas around the value of “positive” self-talk rather than on the most up-to-date research and theory. He suggested that inner speech develops and becomes the medium of consciousness as children internalize culture and meaning in the form of language. With respect to the expressive function, Van Raalte and colleagues’ (2016a) definition highlights self-talk as an articulation of an internal position. Van Raalte and colleagues (2016a) built upon Hardy’s foundations by considering broad questions such as “If we already know everything that we know, then why do we talk to ourselves?” and “When we talk to ourselves, who is talking to whom?” Their sport-specific model of self-talk can be used to provide answers to such questions. Implementing self-talk interventions successfully, however, requires some understanding of how, when, why, and for whom self-talk interventions are likely to be effective. In the research literature, both instructional and motivational self-talk have been shown to enhance performance. By definition, sport psychology is the study of mental factors as they relate to athletics. Athletes are trained to use positive cues to Athletes are trained to use positive cues to Theodorakis, Y., Weinberg, R., Natsis, P., Douma, I., & Kazakas, P. (2000). Despite the obvious differences in observability between these types of self-talk, it is thought they serve similar self-regulatory functions and indeed research has shown that both overt and covert self-talk use similar brain structures (Morin, 2011; Unterrainer & Owen, 2006). The addition of the term “syntactically recognizable” separates self-talk from verbalizations such as shouts of frustration (aaahhhh! As stated earlier, self-talk is an underdeveloped sector of sport psychology, with a small but growing research base emerging. Efforts are made to reduce the effects of presuppositions of participant experiences. Self-talk continues to be an important element of applied sport psychology included in psychology skills training (PST) programs and as part of the sport psychology canon (Andersen, 2009; Theodorakis, Hatzigeorgiadis, & Zourbanos, 2012). Positive self-talk is not self-deception. Self-talk is defined as the expression of a syntactically recognizable internal position in which the sender of the message is also the intended received. Further, their model highlights how dual processing theories can be used to explain the separate but interacting systems by which information from the outside world is processed (see above). A substantial amount of self-talk research has been dedicated to categorizing self-talk. System 1 and System 2. That is the self-talk that directs attention in a particular way including “bend your knees and follow through” or “you can do it!”. In order to narrow this definition Hardy highlighted three important features of self-talk that distinguish self-talk from other phenomena: (a) self-talk is directed toward the self and not toward others; (b) it can occur either out loud or internally; and (c) it occurs as a self-statement or something we say to ourselves. One idea central to the sport-specific model of self-talk is that System 2 self-talk is consciously monitored and requires cognitive energy. The sport-specific model of self-talk highlights the important role that context and culture play in understanding self-talk and self-talk behavior. The purpose of this article is to provide theoretical and empirical information that can help coaches, … Although neurological approaches to measuring self-talk are promising, extant tools do not easily lend themselves to assessing self-talk during many sport performance tasks. Measures that assess self-talk focusing on the level of use include the Psychological Skills Inventory for Sports (PSIS; Mahoney, Gabriel, & Perkins, 1987), the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28 (ACSI-28; Smith, Schutz, Smoll, & Ptacek, 1995), the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas, Murphy, & Hardy, 1999, revised by Hardy, Roberts, Thomas, & Murphy, 2010), and the Athletes’ Positive and Negative Self-Talk Scale (Zourbanos, Hatzigeorgiadis, & Theodorakis, 2007). Although self-talk has been widely endorsed by athletes and coaches as a performance enhancement strategy, a comprehensive model of self-talk in sport that might be used to guide systematic research has yet to be developed. In the sport psychology literature, hypotheses and theories pertaining to self-talk have tended to focus on one prediction or research finding at a time, for example, the positive self-talk hypothesis. Some researchers have used fMRI and other brain assessment tools to examine brain function and self-talk, but current brain imaging technology does not lend itself to use in sport settings. Additional research exploring the effects of self-talk of various grammatical forms in sport settings seems warranted. Master mental game coach, Dr. Patrick Cohn, can help you or your athlete(s), ages 12 and up, overcome mental game issues with personal coaching. Specifically, a strong definition of self-talk will allow more clarity with respect to where phenomena such as mantras, internal music, prayer, and talk aimed at inanimate objects (i.e., “get in the net!”) fall in relation to self-talk. Self-talk has been studied from the earliest days of research in experimental psychology. Hardy (2006) described the self-determined nature of self-talk as falling on a continuum from assigned to freely chosen, which may be a helpful heuristic for understanding how self-talk is used in practice. Self-talk may also be mouthed but not spoken aloud (Van Raalte et al., 2016a). One of the most prevalent hypotheses in the applied self-talk literature is that self-talk with a positive valence is best for sport performance (Tod et al., 2011). When looking at the self-talk of athletes across cultures, it is important to recognize that individual languages contain unique words that have no equivalent in English, such as the Finnish word sisu, meaning the psychological strength used to overcome extraordinary challenges (Anthes, 2016). Positive self-talk refers to statements that are encouraging or self-assuring in tone, for instance, “Nice work!” or “Yes!” Motivational self-talk is often considered a subcategory of positive self-talk and refers specifically to self-talk phrases aimed at boosting motivation such as “go get ‘em!” or “you can do it!” Negative self-talk refers to statements that are discouraging or self-deprecating in tone, for instance, “I’m awful” or “Bad game.” Neutral self-talk has neither negative nor positive tone and may include self-talk statements related to tactics or strategy. Matching self-talk to the task (e.g., using motivational self-talk for gross motor skills such as power lifting) can be a useful strategy, although findings have been inconsistent, perhaps because many individual sport performances involve diverse sport tasks that include both fine and gross motor skills. The introduction of the sport-specific model of self-talk into the literature provides a foundation for ongoing exploration of spontaneous (System 1) self-talk and intentionally used (System 2) self-talk and highlights factors related to self-talk and performance such as individual differences (personal factors) and cultural influences (contextual factors). Additional attention to measurement of self-talk will enhance understanding in this area. That is, although self-talk by definition is directed toward the self, when overheard by a competitor, fan, or other person, self-talk may influence perceptions and future interactions (Van Raalte, Brewer, Cornelius, & Petitpas, 2006). Since self-talk is a tangible result of cognitive processes and inner experiences that researchers and applied practitioners can barely access, Self-talk in Sport is a tool for sports psychologists to understand and interact with hidden parts within athletes that have a major impact on sport and exercise experiences and performance. The self-regulatory function of self-talk has been the focus of much of the research in the self-talk literature. Such intentionally used (System 2) self-talk may also facilitate self-regulation via mental simulations and reflective processing which can lead to enhanced performance (Van Raalte et al., 2016a). In S. D. Mellalieu & S. Hanton (Eds.). This type of self-talk, self-talk that occurs spontaneously, has different neural correlates than that of assigned inner speaking (Hurlburt, Alderson-Day, Kuhn, & Fernyhough, 2016). Self-Talk is used to enhance athlete’s confidence in their performance whether it is in practice or a game. Tod, D., Hardy, J., & Oliver, E. (2011). Such a definition also allows for self-talk to be distinguished from other cognitive, behavioral, and communicative phenomena that overlap with, but are distinct from, self-talk. For instance, people who are anxious and use the self-talk “I am calm” perform worse than those who are anxious and use the self-talk “I’m excited” (Brooks, 2014). In his review of self-talk definitions, Hardy (2006) pointed to definitions like “self-talk can be manifested as a word, a thought, a smile, or a frown” (Chroni, 1997) and “anytime you think about something you are in a sense talking to yourself” (Bunker, Williams, & Zinsser, 1993) as being too broad to provide clarity for researchers and practitioners. Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Psychology. Such studies typically assign self-talk and focus on the measurement of performance and related variables. Specific areas of the brain have been found to be involved in planned, directed, self-talk (Christoff, 2012; Longe et al., 2010; Morin, 2011) as well as automatic self-talk (Kühn et al., 2013). Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Some self-talk that athletes use, self-selected/automatic, may later be suggested by coaches or sport psychologists and thus be considered assigned/strategic. I am also under 14s coach at a Championship football club's academy. Such findings have implications for the culture within teams but also in relation to culture more broadly understood. 1 It can be in the form of speaking to yourself, or in the form of thoughts that come into your mind. Self-talk interventions have proven effective for enhancing performance. DES is a measurement approach that can identify self-talk and patterns of self-talk in real time and facilitate examination of self-talk that is unique to individuals and contexts such as that of competitive golfers (Dickens, 2007). Therefore, research was conducted to explore the psychological approaches used by elite athletes and to compare the approaches of elite and other athletes (Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1993; Mahoney & Avener, 1977). It’s your inner voice and you may or may not have spent much time thinking about it or giving it any attention. Further research on the self-talk matching hypothesis is needed before concrete self-talk prescriptions can be made. In the field of sport psychology, self-talk did not emerge as an area of research focus until the cognitive revolution of 1970s, when researchers began to consider ways in which the thinking of athletes influenced performance and experiences in sport (Williams & Straub, 2006). Self-talk definition at Dictionary.com, a free online dictionary with pronunciation, synonyms and translation. Further, the questionnaire approach relies on athletes’ ability to accurately recall their past self-talk. Three specific theories that follow from the sport-specific model are discussed in the following sections. Yannis Theodorakis, in Sport and Exercise Psychology Research, 2016. A framework for the study of self-talk in sport. Much research on self-talk in sport has an applied focus. Thus, an athlete might say to herself, “I am so nervous right now.” This expressive feature is important because it allows for interpretation and consideration of current positions in relation to past experiences and other existing beliefs in consciousness. The procedure is conducted over several days to enable participants and researchers to improve their experience-apprehension skill so that the actual form and content of participants’ recorded inner experience is a true reflection of their inner experience, which can then be categorized and/or described via narrative description. Exploring the self-talk of athletes with regard to culture and language opens up an array of interesting research questions such as the effects of unique self-talk vocabulary and the self-talk and experiences of multilingual athletes. Recent speculation about the power of overt self-talk for influencing the sport context, however, may provide an important avenue for further research in this area (Van Raalte et al., 2016a). It involves the study of how psychological factors affect performance and how participation in sport and exercise affect psychological and physical factors. Such theoretical underpinnings are evident in sport psychology studies exploring how different types of self-talk affect performance (e.g., Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Galanis, & Theodorakis, 2011; Tod, Hardy, & Oliver, 2011), in the area of self-efficacy where self-talk is seen as a way to understand and intervene with core beliefs about the self (e.g., Son, Jackson, Grove, & Feltz, 2011; Weinberg, Grove, & Jackson, 1992), and in studies comparing elite performers to other athletes in terms of self-talk (e.g., Mahoney & Avener, 1977). With regard to self-talk, such research typically involved questionnaires that included items designed to determine how much self-talk was used and how effective the self-talk was perceived to be as an intervention strategy. Speaking clearly: A critical review of the self-talk literature. Abstract. Another hypothesis that follows from the sport-specific model of self-talk is the self-talk dissonance hypothesis, which predicts that System 2 self-talk that conflicts with System 1 gut feelings and impressions is likely to deplete cognitive resources and have a detrimental effect on performance. This purpose of this paper is to: (a) review theory and research related to self-talk in sport; and (b) present a … Log in. Thus, extensive use of System 2 self-talk has the potential to drain cognitive resources, which can lead to performance decrements (Van Raalte et al., 2016a). Within 24 hours of the beep, participants are interviewed about their experiences to help provide a full description of beeped experiences. Sport psychology assumes that goal-setting is the key to motivation. Assessing the self-talk of elite and other athletes via questionnaire is a convenient approach that allows for comparisons across athlete groups but also has important limitations. The general benefits of positive self-talk have been demonstrated, but further research is needed to help clarify under what circumstances and for whom positive self-talk is most effective. 'Normal' people don't talk to themselves, do they? Self-talk is the internal narrative you hold about yourself. Self-talk is defined as the verbalization or statements athletes repeat to themselves prior to or during skill execution (Begley, 2012). Positive Self-Talk in Sport Written by Gobinder Gill. Are inner speech self-report questionnaires reliable and valid? Vygotsky’s (1986) cultural-historical psychology was one of the earliest theories in which inner speech/self-talk played a prominent role. Assigned and self-selected self-talk. Self-talk questionnaires typically require athletes to rate their self-talk use on scales ranging from not at all, never, or rarely to very much, always, very often. The truth is that while most people don't talk out loud to themselves, we all have some sort of self-generated dialogue taking place privately in our minds. I currently work as a lecturer in sport at the Manchester College. “Say what? Valence refers to the emotional tone of a self-talk statement. Performing these techniques can improve focus and slow the brain down, giving it the ability to devote more "power" to the specific task at hand. Given the important place held by self-talk in the practice of applied sport psychology, it is not surprising that self-talk is a well-studied phenomenon. Psychology definition for Self Talk in normal everyday language, edited by psychologists, professors and leading students. Similarly, the use of non-first person pronouns such as one’s own name enhances the ability to regulate thoughts, feelings, and behavior relative to the use of first person pronouns (Kross et al., 2014). Another approach to categorization of self-talk separates overt self-talk statements that occur out loud and can be seen or heard by others from covert statements that occur internally (Hardy, 2006). Wood et al. Self-talk is basically your inner voice, the voice in your mind that says the things you don’t necessarily say out loud. Effects of cognitive training strategies on muscular force and psychological skills in healthy striking combat sports practitioners. Thus, progress with regard to definition, measurement, and theory will provide the foundation for future developments in the field. A shift to the use of theoretically and empirically grounded approaches to self-talk interventions is more likely to occur when practitioner-specific information tying self-talk theory to practice is available (Van Raalte, Vincent, & Brewer, 2016b). The underlying idea behind this hypothesis is that positive self-talk is linked to cognitive, motivational, behavioral, and affective mechanisms such that athletes who use positive self-talk are likely to decrease anxiety, improve concentration and focus, and perform better. To accomplish this goal, participants carry a beeper, and when a random beep is emitted, they immediately record the experiences salient to them immediately prior to the beep. THEORY: Positive self-talk relates to the ability to overcome negative thinking. Moment-by-moment or “state” self-talk has been assessed by researchers observing sport competitions. Sport Science Health, 12, 141-149. Harvey, Van Raalte, and Brewer (2002) found that positive self-talk was correlated with worse golf putting accuracy. Goal Setting. Negative thoughts will increase anxiety levels. (2014) found that for novices, instructional and motivational self-talk did not differ in their effects on throwing accuracy but motivational self-talk enhanced throwing for distance performance. One of the hardest skills in sport psychology to master is self-talk, but it is also one of the simplest concepts to the psychology world. These findings are concerning because self-talk questionnaires should all measure the same construct—self-talk. Although the distinction between assigned/strategic and self-selected/automatic self-talk is important in research design, its value in applied settings is less clear. Building on research and language from dual-processing theories (Kahneman, 2003; Evans & Stanovich, 2013), Van Raalte and colleagues (2016a) developed an approach that uses System 1 and System 2 categorizations to categorize self-talk based on features related to information processing. Interventions such as thought stopping, thought replacement, and self-talk journaling are examples of interventions designed for the purpose of enhancing performance by making an athlete’s self-talk more positive (e.g., Ramirez & Beilock, 2011; Ziegler, 1987). Wood, Perunovic, and Lee (2009) found that participants with low self-esteem felt worse when using positive self-talk. They found that negative self-talk was widely used by athletes during competition and also noted that negative self-talk was related to worse tennis performance among youth athletes. System 1 self-talk occurs in line with System 1 processes. Hardy, Roberts, and Hardy (2009) noted that self-talk can be learned from teammates, opponents, parents, or even media portrayals of athletes. In a post-game interview with ABC, … Neutral self-talk also includes instructional self-talk, a category commonly seen in the literature that refers to statements such as “slow and steady” or “bend your knees,” which provide guidance or instruction to an athlete. In sport psychology, the cognitive revolution of the 1970s led researchers and practitioners to explore the ways in which self-talk affects performance. A body of literature has shown that athletes who use self-talk as part of a psychological skills training package experience performance benefits (Theodorakis et al., 2012). In sports psychology, the goal is to replace negative self-talk with more positive messages. Researchers have separated self-talk into positive, negative, and neutral self-talk categories (Van Raalte, Brewer, Rivera, & Petitpas, 1994; Van Raalte et al., 1995, 2000). As increased attention is paid to self-talk definitions, it is likely that self-talk measurement will be reconsidered as well. Valence. More recently, researchers have expanded their exploration of self-talk by focusing on measuring the functions of self-talk via such questionnaires as the Functions of Self-Talk Questionnaire (Theodorakis et al., 2008) and the Self-Talk Questionnaire for Sports (Zervas, Stavrou, & Psychountaki, 2007) and assessing athletes’ spontaneous self-talk via the Automatic Self-Talk Questionnaire for Sports (Zourbanos, Hatzigeorgiadis, Chroni, Theodorakis, & Papaioannou, 2009) and the Thought Occurrence Questionnaire for Sport (Hatzigeorgiadis & Biddle, 2000). A distinction between assigned/strategic self-talk statements and self-selected/automatic self-talk statements in experimental studies is another approach to categorization (Theodorakis et al., 2012). In research settings, knowing which statements are assigned by researchers and which statements come from participants is important for understanding and contextualizing the findings of a study, as assigned self-talk helps ensure the equivalence of self-talk across conditions. View profile. In sport psychology, the cognitive revolution of the 1970s led researchers and practitioners to explore the ways in which self-talk affects performance. My third role is as a sport performance (psychology) consultant specialising in football and mixed martial arts. The truth is, our self-talk can actually have a much bigger influence on the way we see ourselves, and the world around us … This article provides an overview of the history of self-talk in sport psychology and performance with a focus on self-talk definitions, theory, research, and measurement. Similar benefits of positive, motivational, and instructional self-talk were found by a systematic review of the self-talk literature (Tod et al., 2011), although results indicated no significant relationship between negative self-talk and sport performance. In June of 2010, the Los Angeles Lakers beat the Boston Celtics in the NBA finals. Recently, a clear definition of self-talk that distinguishes self-talk from related phenomena such as imagery and gestures and describes self-talk has emerged. Sport psychology is an interdisciplinary science that draws on knowledge from many related fields including biomechanics, physiology, kinesiology and psychology. In the area of definition, movement toward a commonly accepted understanding of what self-talk is and what it is not will streamline the research literature and open new doors in the areas of self-talk theory and measurement. Thus, it is difficult to determine if the self-report measured by questionnaires is a valid reflection of athletes’ actual experiences as some self-talk scales are uncorrelated with open-ended self-reports of inner speech and there are only weak correlations among various self-talk measures and their subscales (Uttl, Morin, & Hamper, 2011). For example, Peters and Williams (2006) found that the self-talk of East Asian students was proportionally more negative than that of European American students on a dart-throwing task and that negative self-talk was associated with better performance for East Asians than for European Americans. Early studies of self-talk in sport drew largely from the ideas of Albert Ellis’s Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (Ellis, 1957) and Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Therapy (Beck, 1975), which highlighted self-talk as an important way to gain insight into faulty or irrational beliefs that influence emotion and behavior. Self-talk is considered to be self-regulatory in that self-talk can be intentionally used to direct attentional focus, enhance confidence, serve to regulate effort, control emotional and cognitive reactions, and facilitate automatic execution (Theodorakis et al., 2008). A concise and clear descriptive definition of self-talk is particularly important because there is the potential for conceptual overlap between self-talk, and other cognitive phenomena such as thought and imagery, and behavioral phenomena such as gestures and non-verbal communication. Many of the shortcomings of these approaches have been addressed by descriptive experience sampling (DES; Hurlburt & Heavey, 2006, 2015; Hurlburt, Heavey, & Kelsey, 2013). In their research, individuals with high self-esteem benefited from the use of positive self-talk, whereas individuals with low self-esteem who used positive self-talk reported feeling worse. Researchers have used this approach to categorization to compare the effects of interrogative statements such as “Will I?” to simple future statements such as “I Will” and have found performance benefits for the interrogative “Will I?” form (Puchalsak-Wasyl, 2014; Senay, Albarracin, & Noguchi, 2010). A meta-analysis of research on instructional and motivational self-talk indicates such self-talk has a moderate beneficial effect on sport task performance (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011). Thus, Hardy defined self-talk as “verbalizations or statements addressed to the self” and also included functions of self-talk in the definition, although Hardy noted that this definition might need future revision. Retrospective reports of mental processes, including self-talk, are notoriously unreliable, subject to the limitations of retrospective introspection (Brewer, Van Raalte, Linder, & Van Raalte, 1991; Hurlburt & Heavey, 2006). Self-talk has been widely endorsed as a performance enhancement tool in the sport psychology literature. That is the self-talk that reflects gut feelings and impressions such as shout of “hooray!” after a goal is scored or “no!” in the face of an error. Several of the most prominent hypotheses and theories in the self-talk literature are discussed in the following sections. Research exploring neurological aspects of self-talk has shown that some participants (17%) who are at rest while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) report that self-talk is their dominant mental activity (Delamillieure et al., 2010). Self-talk is a key component of the sport psychology canon. Taxonomies are important in that they facilitate a complex and nuanced understanding of self-talk, which enhances the state of research and applied interventions. Self-talk refers to statements that athletes and exercisers address to themselves; these might represent automatic verbalizations or more deliberate forms of speech. Van Raalte and colleagues (2000) studied competitive adult tennis players during tournament matches and found that only 1 player performed better after using positive self-talk, 2 players performed worse, and 15 players’ point outcomes were unaffected by their self-talk. Self-talk tends to vary over the course of a contest, and it can be difficult for athletes to accurately recall. Combining DES and/or elicitation interviews with assessment of neuronal brain changes via technology such as Brain TV may allow for the assessment of self-talk at the experiential and neuronal levels (Petitmengin & Lachaux, 2013). Sport settings seems warranted also under 14s coach at a Championship football club 's academy self-talk categories outside of message. 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Do not easily lend themselves to assessing self-talk during play, however focus on the self-talk phenomenon 2011.!